Glossary of Terms

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z

4H Club The first Canadian 4H Club was started in Roland, Manitoba, in 1913. Its purpose is to provide rural young people with opportunities to learn about farming.

On a 24-hour clock, time is expressed as a four-digit number. It divides the day into 24 hours. The first two digits indicate the hour; the second two digits indicate the minutes. Hours are numbered consecutively from 00 to 23; with midnight being 00; minutes are numbered consecutively from :00 to :59. The 24-hour clock eliminates the need for a.m. and p.m. The Earth is divided into 24 time zones. This is called standard time.

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Aboriginal People are the first inhabitants of North America. In Canada today, Aboriginal People are defined as First Nations, Inuit, and Metis. In the past, the Aboriginal People of the Plains set up seasonal settlements. They hunted, fished, and gathered berries to sustain themselves.

The Aboriginal People of the Plains were the original inhabitants of the Prairies. They lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering berries and plants. Their lifestyle depended on the great bison (buffalo) herds. The Aboriginal People of the Plains include the Assiniboine, Blackfoot, Blood, Dakota, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibway, Sarcee, and the Stoney.

Aboriginal stories are multi-layered like an onion and teach about nature and common sense at various age levels. The same Aboriginal story may take on different meanings at various stages of life. These stories continue to be passed down from one generation to the next by oral tradition.

Acid rain is produced when water vapour combines with chemicals in the atmosphere such as sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide. This combination forms a mild acid that falls to the Earth as acid rain. There has been a large increase of sulphur dioxide, and nitric oxide in the air due to air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels. Many forests around the world are dying because of acid rain. Acid rain is also killing many fresh water lakes in Canada.

Adaptation is the process whereby, over many generations, plant and animal behaviour and body structures change to cope with environmental changes in their habitat.

Agronomists are plant scientists who study land management and the scientific cultivation of plants. Agronomists have developed many plant strains specifically suited to prairie conditions. During the last decade, prairie farmers have been encouraged to grow a greater variety of field crops to broaden their market.

Air masses are large bodies of air that have similar temperature and pressure. A concentration of warm light air is called a low-pressure cell. A concentration of cool heavy air is called a high-pressure cell. Pressure cells can be very large. Wind often moves from high-pressure cells to low-pressure cells.

Air pollution produced by the burning of fossil fuel by industries, automobiles, coal-fired power stations, and aircraft is increasing. Changes due to air pollution include increasing levels of carbon dioxide, decreasing oxygen levels, more acid rain and a thinning of the ozone layer.

The Alberta Plateau is another name for Prairie Level Three. The elevation of this plateau ranges from 200 to 1000 m above sea level. The Alberta Plateau is set apart from Prairie Level Two by the Missouri Coteau, which acts like a giant step between the Saskatchewan Plains and the Alberta Plateau. This prairie level is hillier than the rest of the Prairies. The southern region of the Alberta Plateau is gently rolling grassland. The few trees that exist in this area are limited to river valleys and ravines. The effects of climate on vegetation are easily visible. The limited annual precipitation can support only desert-like plants. The native vegetation is mostly short prairie grass, which produces light brown soil, the least fertile of prairie soils.

All weather roads allow people in rural areas to travel in all kinds of weather. In the past, rain and snow often made rural roads impassable. Good roads are necessary to keep rural communities mobile.

Alpine glaciers, or mountain glaciers, form in the same way as continental glaciers. The only difference is that they are formed in mountainous regions like the Canadian Rockies.

Altitude is the height above sea level or ocean level. Landforms are measured by how many metres they are above the level of the oceans. Churchill, an ocean port, is 5 metres above sea level; Winnipeg is 232 metres above sea level; and Calgary is 1045 metres above sea level. The height of the prairie landscape gradually increases from the Manitoba Lowland to the Alberta Plateau.

Amphibians are cold-blooded creatures that live in a moist habitat. They hatch from eggs laid in water, where they spend the first part of their life cycle. Amphibians begin life in water, breathing through gills, and end up living on land breathing through lungs. The Prairie's most common amphibians include frogs and salamanders.

Animals have adapted in various ways to the prairie biome. Grazers such as bison, deer, elk, and pronghorn feed on prairie grasses. Other animals have adapted as burrowers that find food and shelter close to the ground surface. Burrowers include gophers, ground squirrels, badgers, and burrowing owls. To cope with the harsh climate, prairie animals either grow a thick fur coat, or they burrow deep into the ground where they hibernate during the long cold winter. Others, such as birds, migrate south for the winter. Each prairie animal has developed a particular strategy for survival on the Prairies.

Anticyclones are high-pressure air masses that rotate in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are usually cooler air masses as compared to the temperature of the surrounding air. The opposite of an anticyclone is a cyclone.

Annual precipitation in an area is the total measurement of all forms of liquid or solid water that fall from the atmosphere and reach the Earth's surface during the period of a year. Forms of water include drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, snow grains, ice crystals, ice pellets, and hail. Annual precipitation is a component of a region's climate.

An aqueduct is an artificial channel or trough built to carry water long distances. Pumps are used if the water needs to be lifted uphill. Some aqueducts in Alberta are constructed of concrete but most are large ditches that flow by gravity. A 240-km aqueduct brings drinking water from Shoal Lake in the Canadian Shield, to Winnipeg. Aqueducts enable many prairie farmers to irrigate their semi-arid land to make it more productive.

Artificial means not occurring naturally. For example, Lake Diefenbaker is an artificial prairie lake that was created by people to imitate the way naturally occurring lakes store water.

Aspen groves are small patches of forest consisting mostly of poplar and other vegetation. These woodlands are scattered throughout the northern prairie parkland sub-region.

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of a column of air pressing down on the Earth. This weather condition is measured in kilo-pascals. Atmospheric pressure depends on both the height and temperature of the air column. Warm air is lighter than cold air; it weighs less and will produce a lower atmospheric pressure. Another name for atmospheric pressure is barometric pressure. An instrument called a barometer measures atmospheric pressure. Two types of barometers are mercury barometer and aneroid barometer.

An auction mart is a place where farmers and ranchers bring their livestock to be sold. Auction marts are typically located in or near larger communities. To ensure the best price for the farmer as well as for the buyer, livestock is sold by an auction where the highest bidder purchases the cattle.

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The Badlands of Alberta have a rugged landscape created by the erosional forces of the Red Deer River. This river cuts through the Alberta Plateau (Prairie Level Three), leaving strange and beautiful rock sculptures called hoodoos. Wind and water further erode these features, which change from year to year. The badlands are a refuge for many unique plants and animals.

A barometer is an instrument that measures atmospheric pressure or barometric pressure. Two types of barometers are mercury barometer and aneroid barometer.

A biome is a large geographical region that has a particular climate and geography. A biome supports a variety of natural ecosystems in which plants and animals have developed interdependence on each other for survival. Examples of different biomes include prairie, tundra, and boreal forest.

Black prairie soils are associated with the original tall prairie grasses of the Manitoba Lowland. They are the most fertile of prairie soils. These soils are formed in regions where the annual precipitation is between 400 and 600 mm. The Red River and Assiniboine valleys are known for their tall prairie grasses as well as for their rich black soils.

Blizzards are severe winter storms that last four or more hours. They have low temperatures, strong winds, and poor visibility due to blowing snow. True blizzard conditions are most common on the Prairies. Environment Canada uses the following description to classify a prairie blizzard,

Brown prairie soils are associated with the original mixed prairie grasses of the Saskatchewan Plains. They are usually more fertile than the light soils of the Alberta Plateau but not as fertile as the dark brown and black soils of the Manitoba Lowland. Brown prairie soils are formed in regions where there is an average annual precipitation between 300 and 400 mm.

A buffalo pound is a corral. In the past, Aboriginal people stampeded herds of buffalo (also called bison) between two barriers made of logs and interwoven with brush. This strongly built corral (pound) trapped the buffalo, giving the hunters a better opportunity to put food away for the winter.

Burrowers are animals that live close to the ground. They build their nests and dens below the surface where they are protected from their enemies and the weather. These animals include gophers, ground squirrels, badgers, swift foxes, and burrowing owls. The colouring of burrowers blends with their surroundings.

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Camouflage is the outward appearance that makes an animal, or thing, seem to be part of its natural surroundings. The white winter fur coat of a prairie rabbit is a natural camouflage. It prevents the rabbit from being easily seen against the snow. Many prairie creatures are brown to blend in with their grassy surroundings. Small animals that do not change colours usually hibernate during the long, cold prairie winters.

Canada's breadbasket is a term given to the Canadian Prairies because of its reputation for growing large quantities of high quality wheat. The Prairies supply Canada's own needs for wheat as well as the needs of other parts of the world. Bread, made from wheat, is a symbol of Canada's food industry.

The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) built the first transcontinental railway line across Canada in the late 1800s. The CPR united Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, making it possible to move goods and people across the entire country.

The Canadian Prairie is a geographical region containing a rich mixture of plant and animal life. The prairie landscape varies from very flat, such as on the Manitoba Lowland, to gently rolling such as on the Saskatchewan Plains and Alberta Plateau. Vast grasslands give the Prairies their name. The word "prairie" is the French word for "grassy meadows". Widespread annual grass fires kept the virgin prairies open and treeless. All this changed with the arrival of the European settlers. Settlers ploughed the vast expanses of prairie, and agricultural plants soon replaced native prairie grasses. Many new tree species were introduced to the Prairies by settlers. Domesticated cattle eventually replaced large free-roaming bison herds.

The Canadian Shield is a geographical region formed of ancient igneous rock that forms the nucleus of the North American continent. It stretches north from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean. The Canadian Shield covers more than half of Canada. It is also called the Precambrian Shield, or simply, the Shield. The surface of the Shield experienced large-scale erosion during the last ice age, exposing frequent outcroppings of rocks. Rocks in the Shield have deep glacial scratches called striations. A boreal forest, dotted by thousands of freshwater lakes, covers the whole shield biome. The Shield is rich in mineral deposits, powerful rivers that can be used to generate electricity, and millions of hectares of forests. The boreal forest, home to many animal species, is one of the few remaining forests on Earth.

The Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) was established in 1935 as an agricultural marketing board. Their responsibility is to sell farmers' grain. The Wheat Board tries to sell the grain at the best possible price to ensure that all farmers get fair market value for their crops. It issues annual delivery quotas to farmers, giving them permission to deliver a certain amount of grain each year. Most grain is delivered to the nearest country grain elevator but some is taken directly to feed mills or processing plants. When it is delivered to the elevator, the manager weighs and samples the grain. The farmer receives a credit note. Later, farmers will receive payment for their grain.

Captain Palliser was a British explorer who was hired by the government of Canada to give a report about the Prairies. He spent nearly three years (1857-60) exploring what is now western Canada. Palliser wrote in his journal, "...in the central part of the continent there is a region, desert and semi-desert which can never be expected to become occupied by settlers." This region came to be known as Palliser's Triangle.

A chinook is a warm, dry, gusty, westerly wind that sweeps across the Rocky Mountains from the Pacific Ocean. This wind was named after the Chinook Aboriginal people who occupied the mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon, the territory from which the wind seems to come. Its effect is most strongly felt in south-western Alberta, between Lethbridge and Calgary. Chinooks occur in both summer and winter but are not always noticeable in summer. A chinook can raise temperatures by as much as 25°C in one hour, even in the dead of winter.

Churchill is on the coast of Hudson Bay. It served as a Hudson Bay trading post from 1607 to the present. It became a prairie seaport when grain terminals were built in the 1930s. Prairie grain is transported by rail to these grain terminals. Prairie grain and other products are shipped through the port of Churchill. Its shipping season is only about eight weeks long, when the Hudson Bay is free of ice. Churchill supports a thriving eco-tourism industry. Many tourists come to see the killer whales, the polar bears, and the northern lights.

Climate is the average atmospheric condition of a large area over a long period of time. Elements of climate include

Manitoba's climate is a typical northern continental type. Cold polar air masses sweep down from the north in winter, bringing with them cold temperatures. Summers are short but warm. The south of the province has 120 frost-free days as compared to fewer than 60 frost-free days in the north. Precipitation is moderate with approximately 600 mm annually.

Saskatchewan's climate is a northern continental type. It has short, warm summers and cold winters. January temperatures can dip to -50°C, and summer temperatures can soar to +40°C. Average annual precipitation is only about 400 mm. Winter snowfalls are light. The south of the province has about 110 frost-free days, while further north, 60 frost-free days is average. Blizzards in winter and thunderstorms in summer are common extreme features of Saskatchewan's climate.

Alberta experiences cold winters and relatively short, cool summers. Western Alberta is under the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains. The mountains act as an orthographic barrier to remove most of the atmospheric moisture coming from the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation in the province is low, ranging from 200 mm in the Palliser Triangle to 400 mm further north. A winter chinook can raise temperatures dramatically in a very short time. The growing season is about 120 frost-free days in southern Alberta, decreasing to 60 frost-free days in the north.

Clouds form when warm moist air is forced upward and cools. Water vapour in the cooled air condenses into tiny droplets. These droplets form clouds. There are many types of clouds, including cumulus, cumulonimbus, status, and altostratus. When droplets join and become too heavy, they fall to earth as precipitation.

Coal is a combustible (capable of burning) sedimentary rock that formed from the remains of plants millions of years ago. Large coal deposits are located throughout south Saskatchewan and central Alberta. Many of the prairie coal deposits are burned to generate electricity from thermal energy.

A cold front occurs when a cold high-pressure air mass replaces a warm low-pressure air mass. The cold air pushes underneath the warm air and creates very unstable weather conditions. Rain, snow, or thunderstorms can result. Temperatures fall rapidly. The movement of a cold front is followed by cooler but more stable weather.

A combine is a large, mobile threshing machine that collects swathed grain and then separates the grain kernels from the straw and chaff. Modern farm combines can harvest hundreds of hectares a day. Some combines are self-propelled while others are pulled by a tractor.

Commercial gardening by prairie farmers produces nearly all types of vegetables. There are two types of vegetable growers and producers: commercial gardeners and market gardeners. Commercial gardeners grow vegetables on a large scale for local consumers as well as for export.

Conifers are cone-bearing trees with needles that remain green all year round. Conifers are also called evergreens. More than 30 conifer species including pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, larch, Douglas fir, cedar, and juniper grow in Canada. The most common prairie conifers are pine, spruce, and cedar.

Conservation is the sustainable use of natural resources. Conservation prevents waste of existing supplies of the Earth's treasures such as natural vegetation, minerals, soil, water, and wildlife.

A continental glacier formed over large portions of the North American continent during the last ice age. Over many years a mammoth ice sheet, several kilometres thick, moved slowly across the surface of Canada. This huge wall of ice altered the landscape by scraping off the surface soil and rocks. Because it covered such a large part of the North American continent, it is called a continental glacier.

Coulees are dried out creek beds scattered across drier areas of the Prairies. Trees and other vegetation tend to grow in coulees where moisture accumulates after rainfall.

The Cree are the Aboriginal People of the northern and central Prairies. The name Cree comes from the French Canadian term Cristino, meaning Christians. The self-identifying term used by the Cree is Ininiwuk meaning men, or the original people. The Plains Cree of Alberta and Saskatchewan, Woodland Cree of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and Swampy Cree of Manitoba and Ontario, all belong to this family.

Creeks are seasonal streams. They flow only when there is an unusual amount of run-off water. Creeks create ravines where the flowing water washes away soil.

Crop rotation is the pattern of alternating the crops grown in a specific field from year to year in order to control pests and to maintain soil fertility.

Cultivation is working the soil to make it suitable for growing crops.

Cultural centres provide citizens with artistic, intellectual, and learning facilities. Cultural centres demonstrate people's way of life, customs, beliefs, and art.

Cyclones are high-pressure air masses that rotate in a counter clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones are usually warmer air masses as compared to the temperature of the surrounding air. A cyclone is not the same as a tornado. The opposite of a cyclone is an anticyclone.

The Cypress Hills are located 30 km south-west of Maple Creek, Saskatchewan, on the Saskatchewan/Alberta border. Their origin can be traced to the end of the last glaciation period when large glacial rivers dropped glacial debris at the estuary of the rivers' mouth. The Cypress Hills form a vegetation transition zone where the lodge pole pines of the Rockies meet the drought-resistant desert vegetation of the south and the grasses of the Prairies.

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Dark grey wooded soils are found in the Parkland sub-region in the northern fringe of the Prairies. These soils are formed where there is a mix of grass and woodlands. The annual precipitation in areas containing dark grey wooded soils varies greatly.

Deciduous trees are broad-leafed, and lose their leaves annually. Deciduous trees of the Prairies include the aspen, birch, burr oak, elm, Manitoba maple, white and black poplar, and willow. The rapidly growing aspen is the most widespread of all deciduous trees on the Prairies.

Delivery quotas The Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) issues annual delivery quotas to farmers, giving them permission to deliver a certain amount of grain each year. Delivery quotas ensure that all farmers get a fair share of the market for their crops. Most grain is delivered to the nearest country grain elevator but some is taken directly to feed mills or processing plants. When it is delivered to the elevator, the manager weighs and samples the grain, and gives the farmer a credit note. Later, farmers will receive payment for their grain.

Dew is low level fog that condenses to form water droplets on the ground. As the ground cools at night, warm moist air near ground level is chilled and water vapour condenses on grass and other objects. Dew is particularly heavy on clear summer nights.

The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to reach its saturation point. At the saturation point, water vapour in the air begins to condense to form dew.

A discer seeder is a farm machine that performs two functions in one operation. It tills the soil while at the same time seeding the crop. Farmers sometimes join two or three of them together to speed up the seeding process.

Dispersed means to be spread out over a large area. Prairie plants have different methods of dispersing their seeds.

Drought resistance is an adaptation of many prairie plants. Drought resistant plants can survive with very little moisture. They do this in several ways

Dry farming is an attempt to maintain soil moisture by conserving water. It is an agricultural method practised in areas of little precipitation, such as in the Palliser Triangle Dry farming or strip farming allows part of the land to remain fallow to conserve moisture while alternate strips of land are seeded and cultivated. The fallow strips collect and store this year's soil moisture for next year's crop.

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Economic centres are communities where many businesses are situated. Economic centres provide jobs, products, and services to the surrounding area.

Ecosystems are natural areas in which plants and animals have developed interdependence on each other for survival. Examples of different ecosystems include grasslands, wetlands, and boreal forests.

El Niño is a Spanish word for the "Christ Child". It has come to be used as a term for unusual climate warming. El Niño can occur an average of two or three times a decade and usually lasts for a few seasons. It affects the world's climate by reversing the temperature of the Pacific Ocean currents. This changes continental weather patterns.

Elevation is the height above sea level or ocean level. The elevation of landforms is measured by how many metres they are above the level of the oceans. Churchill, a seaport, is at sea level; Winnipeg is 232 metres above sea level; and Calgary is 1045 metres above sea level. The elevation of the prairie landscape gradually increases from the Manitoba Lowland to the Alberta Plateau.

An endangered species is a plant or animal that is native to an ecosystem but which is currently threatened with extinction throughout all its natural range.

Erosion is the process of moving material from one place and depositing it in another. Erosional forces include

An escarpment is a steep cliff or ridge formed by erosion or faulting. The Manitoba Escarpment is an ancient eroded fault. It is the eastern edge of the Saskatchewan Plains.

Eskers are clay and gravel ridges that were carried by the melt water flowing within a glacial ice channel. They formed when large rivers developed on top of or underneath the ice. These ice rivers carried gravel and other material with them. When the entire glacier melted, it exposed these riverbeds. Examples of eskers are the Birds Hill gravel pits near Winnipeg.

An extinct species is a plant or animal that was formerly native to an ecosystem, but that no longer exists in that ecosystem or anywhere else on Earth.

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Falcon Lake is a beautiful resort town in Whiteshell Provincial Park on the western edge of the Canadian Shield. This is the starting point for our virtual Prairie Tour.

Feed lot operations are businesses that specialize in finish feeding beef cattle in preparation for market. Cattle are brought in from the open range and then fed a special diet of grain and silage to produce a higher quality beef.

Fertile soil contains rich topsoil capable of promoting the growth and development of plants.

Fertilizers are organic materials or chemicals added to soil by farmers to make it more productive. Prairie agriculture depends on fertilizers to produce a higher crop yield. Run-off from fertilizers may affect the quality of groundwater and drinking water.

Finish feeding involves bringing range cattle to a feeding station where they are fed a special diet of grains and silage before being delivered to a slaughterhouse for processing. Finish feeding fattens the cattle and produces high quality beef.

A First Nations Community is formed by land retained for the exclusive use of Aboriginal people. First Nations communities were developed as a result of treaties signed between the British government and the Aboriginal People. All First Nations' communities are under the control of their residents. An elected council administers all affairs of the community. Members of the community can use the land, lease it, or contract it to companies that develop resources found on the land including, minerals, lumber, and hydroelectric dams.

Floods occur when more water enters a drainage system than it can handle. Floods can also occur when too much precipitation falls in a very short time. Flash floods can happen in mountainous regions when the surrounding ground cannot absorb the rain. Flooding can also occur if there is a sudden snowmelt or if ice blocks the flow of a river in spring. Rivers that cannot handle the sudden increase of water flow can overflow their banks creating huge floods. However, when floodwaters recede, a layer of fertile soil is deposited, resulting in natural soil enrichment. The Red River in Manitoba occasionally overflows its banks, creating very destructive floods. In the spring, large parts of the Manitoba Lowland can be under water, creating a lake approaching the size of former glacial Lake Agassiz. One of the most destructive floods occurred in 1950, when a large portion of Winnipeg was flooded. The most recent devastating flood was in 1997 when much of southern Manitoba was underwater. A large ditch or floodway was built around Winnipeg in 1961 to handle the extra water flow during a flood.

Fog is ground level cloud.

The Foothills is a sub-region that forms the western transition zone of the Prairies. The Foothills average about 150 km in width. They form the transition zone between the Prairies and the Rocky Mountains.

Fossil fuels are natural resources such as petroleum and coal that can be burned to produce thermal energy. Luxuriant plant growth in primeval swamps builds up layers of decaying plants and animals. Over time and through pressure, these organic materials were transformed into petroleum and coal. The Prairies are rich in these fossil fuels, which are mined in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.

Fossils are petrified plants and animal remains from long ago. Over time, minerals gradually replaced the original organic plant and animal material. Fossils appear to be made of stone.

A front is the boundary between two different weather systems. Fronts indicate a change in weather. There are two types of fronts, cold fronts and warm fronts.

Frost-free days are the number of continuous days without a temperature below freezing (0°C) in any particular area. The number of frost-free days determines the length of the growing season. This determines the type of crops that can be grown in a given agricultural zone. An example of the number of frost-free days for prairie cities include

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A Geologist is a scientist who studies rocks and rock formations.

Gimli is a small community located approximately 90 km north of Winnipeg in the Interlake sub-region of the Manitoba Lowland. It is a local service centre for the Lake Winnipeg fisheries and the surrounding agricultural area. In 1875, Icelandic immigrants founded Gimli as the first Icelandic community in Canada. Gimli is home to about 130 commercial fishermen who fish the south basin of Lake Winnipeg. The fishing fleet currently operates out of Gimli harbour. This town is one of Manitoba's major tourist areas.

Glacial debris is a mixture of sand, gravel, and stone left behind when a glacier melts.

Glacial erratics are large boulders randomly strewn throughout the Transition Zone of eastern Manitoba and the Pioneer Fringe of the rest of the Prairies. When the last continental glacier melted, debris frozen to the bottom of the ice was left behind. Bison frequently used these large rocks as rubbing stones.

Glacial lakes were formed as the result of the retreat of large glaciers. An example of a glacial lake that was once on the Prairies is ancient Lake Agassiz. Lake Agassiz was formed when the last continental glacier melted 10,000 years ago. The glacial meltwater from Lake Agassiz created a vast inland sea. In 1879, the ancient lake was named in memory of Louis Agassiz to honour his contribution to the study of continental glaciation. Lake Agassiz once covered the southern portion of Manitoba. This lake bottom is now a table flat surface that we call the Manitoba Lowland. Manitoba's three largest lakes, Lake Winnipeg, Lake Manitoba, and Lake Winnipegosis are the last remains of former Lake Agassiz. The accumulation of lake sediments from Lake Agassiz formed the basis for the rich soils of the Manitoba Lowland.

Glacial melt water is produced when a glacier melts. Huge quantities of glacial melt water formed giant rivers and lakes at the end of the last ice age.

Glacial spillways are ancient river channels that once carried away melt water from the retreating continental glacier. When that glacier melted, the enormous amount of glacial melt water formed huge rivers. Eventually the water drained and only small rivers now remain in these giant river valleys. Examples of glacial spillways on the Prairies are the Pembina, Assiniboine, and Qu'Appelle river valleys.

Glacial till is the mixture of rocks, stones, and soil left behind when a glacier melts. Glacial till material is visible in the Pioneer Fringe area of the Prairies east of Winnipeg.

Glaciers form when snow from the previous winter does not completely melt over the summer months. New snow is added during each successive winter. The accumulation of snow year after year eventually produces an ice sheet several kilometres thick. Such a thick ice sheet, called a continental glacier, moved across Canada during the last ice age.

Global warming is caused by air pollution. Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This increase in carbon dioxide is called the greenhouse effect because it causes global warming. Scientists predict global warming will result in many extreme weather conditions.

The Government of Canada is a Confederation. It is made up of ten provinces and three territories. There are three levels of government in Canada. Each level has special responsibilities. The Federal government takes responsibility for matters that concern the entire country, such as defence and foreign affairs. The Provincial and Territorial governments take responsibility for health and education. Local Municipal and Aboriginal councils take responsibility for community affairs such as roads, utilities, and traffic.

The grain belt is the portion of the Prairies that is suitable for growing grain. Most grain requires at least 90 or more frost-free days and about 600 mm or more of annual precipitation.

Grasses once grew abundantly on the Prairies, extending from the Canadian Shield in the north-east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Today however, isolated patches of original prairie grass remain only in protected areas. Their existence was mostly the result of yearly grass fires started by lightning. These fires prevented tree seedlings from growing but were harmless to grass roots. Grasses are very well adapted to the prairie ecosystem. They have long root systems that allow them to get moisture from far below the surface in dry years. The types of grasses that grow on each prairie level depend upon the amount of natural annual precipitation. The three types of prairie grasses are tall grasses, mixed grasses, and short grasses.

Grazers are animals that have adapted for survival in a grassland biome or ecosystem. Many prairie animals are grazers that feed on the lush prairie grasses. These include bison, deer, pronghorn, and rabbits.

The greenhouse effect is a term used to describe the global warming of the Earth's atmosphere. A build-up of gasses such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and methane in the atmosphere is increasing the greenhouse effect. This is because these gasses trap heat in the lower layer of the atmosphere.

Ground plants take full advantage of the prairie biome. A great diversity of ground plants thrive on the Prairies. They grow close to the ground where they are protected from the cold strong winds of spring and other severe prairie weather conditions. Ground plants are the most common prairie plants. There are more than 400 species of plants on the Prairies.

Groundwater is a major source of fresh water in drier regions of the Earth. Much of the world's fresh water is held in these underground aquifers. Aquifers are layers of porous rock that are sandwiched between layers of hard rock. Fresh groundwater is stored in the porous rock.

Gullies are weatherworn valleys found throughout the prairie region. Gullies are usually formed by water erosion.

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A habitat is the natural home of a small group of interdependent plants and animals. Each habitat supports plants and animals that have adapted to conditions found in that local area. Examples of natural habitats include fields, ponds, and forests.

Hail forms when droplets of water in the atmosphere are forced upward and freeze. When this process is repeated several times, tiny ice pellets can become larger hailstones. Hailstones can range in size from a small pea to a golf ball. Hail occurs most frequently in summer when thunderstorms are at their height. It does extensive damage to agricultural crops every year on the Prairies.

A hectare is a metric unit for measuring the area of land. One hectare is equal to 10, 000 square metres or 2.47 acres.

Heifers are calves less than two years old. Heifers are often raised by 4H members for agricultural exhibitions.

Herbicides are chemicals used to control the growth of weeds. Weeds rob agricultural plants of valuable nutrients and moisture. Herbicides may effect the quality of groundwater.

Hibernation occurs when animals spend the winter in a dormant or inactive stage. Hibernation is an adaptation by which many burrowing animals survive the long cold prairie winter. Prairie animals that hibernate include amphibians, reptiles, ground squirrels, gophers, and bears.

High tension wires carry high voltage electricity from a power plant to its destination, where it is used in homes and industries.

Historical reconstructions such as the Austin Museum, Lower Fort Garry, the Mennonite Heritage Village, and the Ukrainian Cultural Village recreate past events. These reconstructions show in a practical way, how people lived in the past. This study of our history helps us to understand how the past has shaped our present way of life.

A homestead was an original farm built by settlers. Improved buildings, constructed with better materials, later replaced these original structures.

The Homestead Act attracted Immigrants to the Canadian Prairies by government advertisements for "free" land. Under the Dominion Lands Policy, each family received 160 acres of land for only $10. The homesteader was required to build a house within three years and to plough a new portion of their land each year.

Hoodoos are natural sandstone sculptures carved by the erosional forces of water and wind. Many interesting hoodoo rock shapes are found in the Alberta Badlands.

Hudson Bay is a large inland sea, extending into north-eastern Canada. It is nearly surrounded by land, except for a small strait that joins it to the Arctic Ocean. Many northern rivers, including the Nelson and the Churchill, flow into the bay. The Hudson Bay Company was once granted all the land whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay. This was close to one-third the total area of Canada. Cod, halibut, and Arctic char are the most common fish. Walrus, dolphins, and killer whales live in the bay. Polar bears migrate south to hunt seals among the ice floes. Some 200 species of birds, including ducks, snow geese, gulls, swans, sandpipers, owls, and crows gather on its coastlines. Hudson Bay provides the Prairies with an ocean seaport at Churchill, to ship prairie grain for export.

Humidity is atmospheric moisture. Moisture in the air results from evaporation of surface water and through transpiration of plants.

Hummus is the organic remains of decayed vegetation.

A hummocky landform is a hilly, uneven landscape resulting from soil or ice movement, usually of a circular nature. A hummock is a rounded knoll.

Hybrid plants are those that have been selectively developed to cope better within existing climatic conditions. Plants with a shorter growing season and higher yields have been developed to thrive on the Prairies. Agricultural crops such as grain, oil seeds, and field crops have also been developed to suit prairie climatic conditions. Wheat and other grains are ideally suited to the prairie climate. Grains require between 90 and 110 frost-free days and about 400 mm to 600 mm of annual precipitation. Oil seeds also grow well in prairie soil and climate. Hybrid varieties of field crops such as lentils, corn, canola, and sunflowers have been bred to take advantage of prairie growing conditions.

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The Ice Age is the name given to the last continental glaciation period that swept across North America thousands of years ago. It greatly changed the Canadian landscape. The continental glacier stripped the region of topsoil. It gouged hollows, which filled with run-off water, creating numerous muskegs or fresh water lakes. Evidence of glaciation can be seen in the striations left by the advancing glacier. When the glacier melted, glacial debris was deposited on the surface over much of the Prairies.

Igneous rock is formed by the solidification of molten lava that reached the Earth's surface from deep within the Earth. The Precambrian Shield is formed of igneous rock.

Industries are large commercial businesses that produce specific products or services. Industries create many jobs. Some important prairie industries include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, food processing, and tourism.

Insecticides are chemical or biological agents used to control insect pests. Insects destroy millions of dollars worth of agricultural crops annually. Insecticides have the potential to poison the environment and may cause long-term harmful effects.

The Interlake sub-region is an extension of the Pioneer Fringe agricultural zone. It is surrounded by the three largest lakes in the province, Lake Winnipeg, Lake Manitoba, and Lake Winnipegosis. Lake Winnipeg is the seventh largest lake in North America and ranks as the thirteenth largest freshwater lake in the world. Being close to Winnipeg has made the Interlake an attractive resort area, offering a variety of recreational activities. Icelandic pioneers settled the Interlake sub-region. Mixed farming is the major economic activity in the Interlake. The lakes themselves are the basis for the Manitoba commercial fresh water fishing industry, which employs hundreds of people. Gimli is the largest fishing community on Lake Winnipeg. Many fishermen operate from its harbour.

The International Peace Gardens, located on the border between Manitoba and North Dakota, symbolize the peaceful co-existence between two great nations, Canada and the United States. Thousands of tourists from many countries visit these gardens each year.

Irrigation is a farming practice by which additional moisture is added to a crop during its growth period. The extra moisture is needed in arid or semi-arid regions of the Prairies because of low and unpredictable rainfall. In certain areas, such as the southern prairies, irrigation is used to supplement limited precipitation to produce greater amounts and more types of grains and vegetables.

Isolated means scattered and set great distances apart.

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Knob and kettle is an area in the central prairies of the Saskatchewan Plains where there are thousands of sloughs and pothole lakes. These sloughs or potholes were produced by large chunks of glacial ice that, when melted, left depressions in the soil. These depressions collect run-off water in spring and summer.

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Lake Agassiz formed when the last continental glacier melted ten thousand years ago. The glacial melt water created a vast inland sea over the Manitoba Lowland, known as Lake Agassiz. In 1879, the ancient lake was named in memory of Louis Agassiz for his contributions to the study of continental glaciation. Today's Lake Winnipeg, Lake Manitoba, and Lake Winnipegosis are the last remains of Lake Agassiz. The bottom of Lake Agassiz gave shape to the flat plain of the Manitoba Lowland. Several rivers spread across the lowland. These include the Red, Assiniboine, Souris, and Pembina rivers, which zigzag back and forth in their broad valleys. The lake sediments, large amounts of precipitation, and resulting lush grass growth are the basis for the rich, black, Red River Valley soils.

Lake Diefenbaker was created when the South Saskatchewan and Qu'Applelle Rivers were dammed. This artificial lake, located in one of the driest regions in Saskatchewan, is more than 100 km long. Water from the dammed-off reservoir generates electricity and provides water for irrigation. This irrigation has allowed thousands of hectares of semi-arid land to be made productive agricultural land. Lake Diefenbaker also provides recreational facilities for the nearby communities.

Light brown prairie soils are found in the semi-arid regions of the short grass prairie of the Saskatchewan Plains and the Alberta Plateau. The entire region of the short prairie grasses is called the Palliser Triangle. Annual precipitation averages less than 300 mm. Light brown soils are fertile but not quite as rich as the darker prairie soils. Most crops grown in the Palliser Triangle require irrigation.

Lines of latitude are imaginary lines running from east to west horizontally around the Earth. Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator (0° latitude). Degrees, minutes, and seconds are the units of latitude used to specify the distance of geographic locations north or south of the equator.

Lines of longitude are imaginary lines running from the North Pole to the South Pole around the Earth. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are the units of longitude used to specify the distance of geographical locations east or west of Greenwich, England (0° longitude).

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The Manitoba Escarpment is the sudden rise in the landscape between the Manitoba Lowland and the Saskatchewan Plains. It marks the boundary between Prairie Level One and Prairie Level Two.

The Manitoba Lowland is also known as Prairie Level One. It covers much of southern Manitoba. Ancient glacial Lake Agassiz created the Manitoba Lowland. The Precambrian Shield forms its boundary on the north and east. The Manitoba Escarpment forms its boundary on the west. Tall prairie grasses once covered the Manitoba Lowland. This tall grass prairie produced rich black soils.

Market gardening is one way that prairie farmers produce vegetables. There are two types of vegetable growers: commercial growers and market gardeners. Commercial growers are large producers that supply the food industry. Market gardeners are small producers who sell their products to the customer directly at roadside stands or in community market places. Vegetable growers plant crops that ensure the availability of fresh produce throughout the growing season. Some produce is stored for future use. Market gardens are located where they can take advantage of fertile soil and have access to irrigation water. Vegetable growing requires much manual labour. Specialized market gardening regions include the Red River and Assiniboine valleys.

Market is a term used to describe where farm products are sold. Farmers sell their food products to processing plants, wholesalers, or directly to grocery stores. Customers buy food products in grocery stores, restaurants, and sometimes directly from farmers.

A mascot is an animal or object that represents a town's image. It is intended to bring good luck. Many prairie communities adopt a mascot that symbolizes one of its unique features. For example, the mascot of Narcisse, Manitoba is the garter snake. This is because this Interlake community is the location of the famous garter snake dens.

The Mennonite Heritage Village is an historical reconstruction of the pioneer history of the Mennonite settlers on the Prairies. It is located on Highway #12 north of the town of Steinbach, Manitoba. The Mennonite Heritage Village serves as an actual and historic centre to the Mennonites of the area.

Mennonite homesteads were constructed by Mennonite settlers on the Prairies. They brought with them many of their cultural traditions. They preferred to live in villages patterned after European styles. These traditional building styles had the barn attached to the house. The first homes of Mennonite settlers were typically built from prairie sod and reinforced with local lumber. Later, homes were built of logs and sawn lumber. Historical reconstructions of Mennonite homesteads can be found in the Mennonite Heritage Village in Steinbach, Manitoba.

A meteorologist is a scientist who studies atmospheric conditions related to weather and climate. Meteorologists prepare daily weather forecasts.

Meteorology is the study of physics and chemistry and how they can be used to explain or forecast weather.

Migrators are animals that move seasonally. Migrating birds fly great distances to warmer climates, while grazing animals migrate to better feeding areas in winter.

Mineral resources are inorganic materials that have special properties that make them valuable. Examples of minerals mined on the Prairies include

The Missouri Coteau, located west of Moose Jaw, forms the border between Prairie Level One and Prairie Level Two. The Missouri Coteau is like a giant step between the Saskatchewan Plains and the Alberta Plateau. It runs north to south between the towns of Chaplin and Mortlach, Saskatchewan, where it crosses the Trans-Canada highway.

Mixed farming operations are often located in the Pioneer Fringe Zone and Interlake area of the Prairies. Mixed farming is the production of a combination of agricultural crops and livestock. Animals raised on mixed farms are frequently fed crops grown on the same farm so there is no need to purchase expensive fodder from a feed mill. Most farms in the past were mixed farm operations.

A mixed forest consists of a mixture of coniferous and deciduous trees. The southern edge of the boreal forest is a mixed forest. It includes coniferous trees such as spruce, pine, cedar, and tamarack, as well as deciduous trees such as black and white poplar, burr oak, birch, and willow.

The mixed grass prairie extends from the Saskatchewan Plains (Prairie Level Two) to the Alberta Plateau (Prairie Level Three). Mixed grass prairies are found between the tall prairie grasses of the Manitoba Lowland and the short prairie grasses of the Palliser Triangle. Mixed prairie grasses can grow where there is between 300 and 500 mm of precipitation annually. These grasses grow to about knee height. Mixed prairie grasses produce dark brown soil that is excellent agricultural soil.

A moraine is an accumulation of boulders, stones, or other debris pushed by the leading edge of a glacier. When the glacier melted, a long ridge of this material was left behind.

Muskegs are water-soaked bogs in the Canadian Shield that are frozen during winter months and become swampy in the summer. Muskegs make it difficult to build roads and railway tracks.

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Native vegetation refers to plants that grow naturally in an area, rather than being transplanted from somewhere else.

Natural gas is a colourless, combustible (capable of burning) mixture of methane, ethane, butane, and propane. It is often found near oil deposits trapped between layers of sedimentary rocks. Huge natural gas bubbles sometimes sit on top of oil reservoirs deep below the surface of the Earth. Much of the natural gas found in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta is "sour" gas. This poisonous, colourless, foul-smelling gas requires extra caution when drilling.

Natural gas is often produced along with crude oil. This is because natural gas generally flows under its own pressure to the surface wherever natural-gas wellheads are installed. In the past it was ignited and burned as waste material. Today, natural gas is recovered and used as a heating fuel and in chemical production.

The northern continental climate extends over a region east of the Rockies and across the Central North American Plains. It covers the entire Canadian Prairies. The northern continental climate has

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An oasis is a small portion of an otherwise inhospitable environment that provides all the necessary conditions, such as food, water, and shelter, for plants and animals to survive.

An occluded front occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front. The warm air is pushed above the cold air, producing severe weather conditions. Rain and snowstorms can occur at an occluded front.

Oil is a fossil fuel. Oil deposits are usually trapped underground between two layers of a dome-shaped rock formation. A long shaft is drilled into the oil pool. The oil is then pumped to the surface. In some places, like the Athabasca Tar Sands, oil has reached the surface on its own and has soaked into sand deposits. Extracting oil from sand is a costly operation.

Ojibway are the Aboriginal people of Southern and Central Manitoba. In Manitoba the Ojibway people are sometimes referred to as Saulteaux, while in the United States they are referred to as Chipewa. Their self-identifying term is Anishinabe.

Open pit coal mines are found close to the surface in many parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta. The least expensive way to mine the coal is to scrape away the top layer of soil and dig up the coal. However, this destroys valuable farmland and disturbs the landscape, leaving ugly scars. Programs to restore the scarred landscape from open pit coal mines have been started on the Prairies.

Open range ranching is quite common on the Prairies west of Swift Current especially in areas of little rainfall. Climate affects how people farm. There is too little moisture in this area to cultivate grain crops, but just enough to allow very hardy native grasses to grow. Beef cattle are raised on these hardy grasses found on large open ranges. Cowboys tend to the cattle on horseback or may use all-terrain vehicles.

Cattle remain out on the open range in winter, feeding on the dead grass that has been exposed by warm winter chinooks. Ranchers drop off hay during the coldest months of winter or when the expected winter chinooks fail to melt the snow to provide sufficient nourishment for cattle on the open range. In summer, cattle graze on the short prairie grasses. Cowboys no longer drive the cattle great distances to the nearest packing plant. Huge semi-trailers arrive at the ranch and cattle are loaded onto them. They are then taken to their destination. Some farmers bring their cattle to a feedlot where they are fed a special diet to prepare them for a cattle sale. Later, the same cattle are auctioned off to the highest bidder at an auction mart. These auction stockyards are located throughout the Prairies. Auction buying and selling assures both buyer and seller a fair price.

Organic farming is a method of growing plants without the use of chemical insecticides, herbicides, or fertilizers.

Orographic barriers are mountain barriers on Canada's West Coast that affect prairie weather. As warm moist pacific air is forced over the mountains, it cools. The moisture condenses and falls as rain or snow on the western side of the mountains. The dry air on the eastern side of the mountain warms as it descends. The mountains create a rain shadow over the prairies. They act like a giant umbrella.

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Packing plants are businesses where livestock such as cattle and pigs are brought for processing into food products such as beef and pork.

The Paleozoic Era of the geological time scale spans a time interval from 570 million to 245 million years ago.

The Palliser Triangle is an irregular, five-sided area of open prairie in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. It is a semi-arid sub-region known for its hardy short prairie grasses. Most of this sub-region receives less than 300 mm of natural precipitation annually. It has light brown soils. Crops can only be grown in the Palliser Triangle using irrigation.

The Parkland is a region of mixed prairie grasses and strands of aspen groves. It sweeps around the northern fringe of Prairie Level Two, the Saskatchewan Plains, in a gigantic arc. The central parkland contains fertile, dark brown soils, while dark grey wooded soils are found closer to the Precambrian Shield.

Pemmican is a complete food, including protein from meat, energy from fat, and vitamins from dried berries. Pemmican provided a well-balanced diet for the Aboriginal people, explorers, fur traders, and voyageurs who depended on it. The sun-dried bison meat was pounded into a coarse powder and mixed with an equal amount of melted bison fat, and occasionally with Saskatoon berries and nuts. It was cooled and placed into bison-hide bags. Pemmican could be stored for a long time and was light enough to be transported with ease.

Petrification is the process whereby over time, and through pressure, remains of animals or plants turn into fossils.

Petroleum is a combustible oil-based liquid that is mined from beneath the Earth's top rock layers. Petroleum is formed over time, from the remains of prehistoric plants.

Pioneers are newly arrived settlers in an unsettled region. On the Prairies, we usually refer to the first non-Aboriginal settlers as pioneers. Their survival in the late 1800s depended on farming. They built permanent farming communities on the Prairies. These early European pioneers included the French, Anglo-Saxons (English and Scottish), Mennonites (Germans), Ukrainians, Icelanders, and settlers from the United States.

The Pioneer Fringe Zone is the area of relatively new agricultural settlement between the permanently settled areas of the southern Prairies and the unsettled territories of the northern Prairies. The Pioneer Fringe Zone is a sub-region that takes the shape of a large crescent around the northeastern limits of the Prairies. Before settlement takes place, the land in the Pioneer Fringe Zone must be cleared of unwanted brush and the prairie sod must be ploughed.

Plants have adapted to survive in the harsh prairie biome. Plants that are not suited do not survive. Survival depends on their ability to adapt to take advantage of their local habitat. Climate and landform determine the type of vegetation found in the prairie biome. Prairie plants have developed various ways of getting nutrients and moisture from the soil. Some plants have very deep root systems; others have hard waxy leaves to prevent evaporation. Many seek out hidden moisture sources along riverbanks, ravines, and creek beds. Plants that thrive on the Prairies require only a short growing season and are able to take advantage of the short but warm summers. Categories of prairie plants include grasses, ground plants, shrubs, trees and wetland plants.

Grasses do not require as much moisture as trees and shrubs; therefore, they grow more readily than do larger plants on the Prairies. The height and abundance of grass is determined by the total amount of precipitation in a given Prairie Level or sub-region.

Ground plants take full advantage of the prairie biome. A great variety of ground plants thrive in various local habitats on the Prairies. They grow close to the ground where they are protected from the cold strong winds of spring and from other severe prairie weather conditions. There are more than 400 species of ground plants on the Prairies.

Shrubs are short bushes that grow in coulees, along creek beds, and around aspen groves. Shrubs vary from less than a metre to several metres in height. In the past, prairie grass fires prevented shrubs from getting started on open prairies. Nevertheless, some very hardy and drought-resistant shrubs have adapted to poor growing conditions. Farmers often plant shelterbelts around their farms as part of a soil conservation program. This practice has introduced many new types of shrubs to the Prairies.

Trees grow in prairie habitats where there is a greater concentration of moisture, such as along riverbanks, and in ravines and coulees. The size and type of trees depend upon how much moisture is available. Pines, spruces, and other evergreens grow in places of dry, sandy soil, while deciduous trees such as aspen and oak prefer moist places.

Wetland plants grow in very moist or shallow water habitats. There are many growing zones for wetland plants on the Prairies, ranging from moist ground to open water. Sloughs or potholes scattered throughout the prairie provide the wetland habitat for these plants.

A plateau is an area of level land that is higher than the surrounding area. Sometimes a plateau is found between two mountains or has mountains on one side only. The Alberta Plateau, Prairie Level Three, rises above the Saskatchewan Plains on the east and touches the Rocky Mountains on the west.

Potash is a mineral mined at Belle Plain, located on the Saskatchewan Plains 35 km west of Regina. Their large dome-shaped storage bins easily identify modern potash mines. Potash is used in the manufacture of fertilizers.

Potholes or sloughs are depressions that were created following the melting of the last continental glacier. Potholes fill with spring run-off water that creates breeding habitat for millions of North American waterfowl. Prairie potholes or sloughs tend to evaporate in late summer, leaving a hard mud crust and a salt deposit on their surface.

Prairie animals have adapted in various ways to the prairie biome. Grazers such as bison, deer, elk, and pronghorn feed on prairie grasses. Other animals have adapted as burrowers that find food and shelter close to the ground surface. Burrowers include gophers, ground squirrels, badgers, and burrowing owls. To cope with the harsh climate, prairie animals either grow a thick fur coat, or they burrow deep into the ground where they hibernate during the long cold winter. Others, such as birds, migrate south for the winter. Each prairie animal has developed a particular strategy for survival on the Prairies.

The prairie biome contains a variety of natural ecosystems in which the physical elements of northern continental climate and rolling landscape have developed communities of plants and animals that are distinct. The Prairies are often considered featureless and flat. Nothing could be further from the truth. Prairies actually contain a great diversity of landforms ranging from broad flat plains to rolling hills and plateaux. Beautiful valleys and escarpments often dissect the Prairies. Grasses are the dominant prairie plants. Prairie flowers such as violets, daisies, crocus, and goldenrod add to the beauty of the grassland. The prairie is also the natural habitat for prairie dogs, bison, coyotes, foxes, gophers, prairie chickens, songbirds, waterfowl, frogs, deer, and antelope.

The prairie climate is classified as a northern continental type. A northern continental climate has long cold winters and short warm summers. Annual precipitation varies from 600 mm in the Manitoba Lowland to less than 200 mm in the Palliser Triangle of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Some parts of the prairie experience desert-like conditions. The nature of prairie weather varies greatly according to the time of year. The prairie climate is characterized by

Prairie fires, started by lightning, burned large areas of dry grass each spring on the original prairie. These periodic fires prevented trees and shrubs from becoming established. However, the root systems of prairie grasses were not affected by fire. Prairie fires cleansed the habitat of many diseases and undesirable insects pests.

The prairie grassland is a geographical biome containing a rich mixture of plant and animal life in a variety of ecosystems. The prairie landscape varies from very flat such as on the Manitoba Lowland, to gently rolling such as on the Saskatchewan Plains and Alberta Plateau. Vast grasslands give the prairies their name. The word "prairie" is the French word for grassy meadows. Widespread annual grass fires kept the untouched prairies open and treeless.

Prairie Level One is also called the Manitoba Lowland. It covers much of southern Manitoba. Ancient glacial Lake Agassiz created Prairie Level One. The Precambrian Shield forms its boundary on the north and east. The Manitoba Escarpment forms its boundary on the west. Tall prairie grasses once covered Prairie Level One. This tall grass prairie produced rich black soils.

Prairie Level Two is also called the Saskatchewan Plains. This level of the prairie is less flat than Prairie Level One. It is situated between Prairie Level One and Prairie Level Three. The Manitoba Escarpment forms the eastern boundary of Prairie Level Two. The Missouri Coteau forms the western boundary of Prairie Level Two. This prairie level is a series of rolling hills interspersed with flat sections, such as the Regina Plains. The North and South Saskatchewan rivers have cut deep valleys in its western plains, while the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboine rivers drain its eastern plains. Prairie Level Two has rich deposits of coal, oil, and potash and a thick layer of fertile soil.

Prairie Level Three is also called the Alberta Plateau. The elevation of this prairie level ranges from 200 to 1000 m above sea level. Prairie Level Three is set apart from Prairie Level Two by the Missouri Coteau, which acts like a giant step between the Saskatchewan Plains and the Alberta Plateau. This prairie level is hillier than the rest of the Prairies. The southern region of Prairie Level Three is gently rolling grassland. The few trees that exist in this area are limited to river valleys and ravines. The effects of climate on vegetation are easily visible. The limited annual precipitation can support only desert-like plants. The native vegetation is mostly short prairie grass, which produces light brown soil, the least fertile of prairie soils.

Prairie plants have adapted to survive in the harsh prairie biome. Plants that are not suited do not survive. Survival depends on their ability to adapt to take advantage of their local habitat. Climate and landform determine the type of vegetation found in the prairie biome. Prairie plants have developed various ways of getting nutrients and moisture from the soil. Some plants have very deep root systems; others have hard waxy leaves to prevent transpiration. Many seek out hidden moisture sources along riverbanks, ravines, and creek beds. Plants that thrive on the Prairies require only a short growing season and are able to take advantage of the short but warm summers. Categories of prairie plants include grasses, ground plants, shrubs, trees and wetland plants.

The prairies is a unique physical region in which the natural elements of climate and geography support a community of plants and animals that are distinct to this biome. The prairie climate is a northern continental type. The prairie geography contains a great variety of landforms ranging from broad flat plains to rolling hills, valleys, and escarpments. Grass is the most common vegetation. Flowers, such as violets, daisies, roses, crocus, and goldenrod, add to the beauty of the prairie grasslands. The prairie also provides habitats that support many mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. The prairies can be divided into three levels, Prairie Level One - the Manitoba Lowland, Prairie Level Two - the Saskatchewan Plains, and Prairie Level Three - the Alberta Plateau.

The Precambrian Shield is a geographical region formed of ancient igneous rock that forms the nucleus of the North American continent. It stretches north from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean. The Precambrian Shield covers more than half of Canada. It is also called the Canadian Shield, or simply, the Shield. The surface of the Shield experienced large-scale erosion during the last ice age, exposing frequent outcroppings of rocks. Rocks in the Shield have deep glacial scratches called striations. A boreal forest, dotted by thousands of freshwater lakes, covers the whole shield biome. The Shield is rich in mineral deposits, powerful rivers that can be used to generate electricity, and millions of hectares of forests. The boreal forest, home to many animal species, is one of the few remaining forests on Earth.

Precipitation is moisture falling to the ground. It comes in the form of rain, drizzle, sleet, snow, or hail. Conditions within clouds, and the temperature around them, determine the type of precipitation that falls. Precipitation is measured with an instrument called a rain gauge. Rain is collected in a clear container and its level is measured. Readings are given in millimetres. Snow is measured in the same manner. To measure the amount of snowfall the snow is first melted, then the resulting water level is measured.

A profitable business takes in more money for its products than it spends on expenses. The selling price of a product, less production cost, equals profit. All businesses need to be profitable to stay in operation.

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A quarter section was the amount of prairie land given to pioneers for their homestead. A section of land, one mile by one mile, was divided into four equal quarters; each one called a quarter section.

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Railway siding The first railway line across the Prairies was a single track. Side-tracks or sidings were constructed in selected locations so that trains going in opposite directions could pass each other. These railway sidings became the places where railway stations and grain elevators were eventually built. Many prairie communities sprang up around railway sidings.

Rain is a form of precipitation. Rain occurs when atmospheric moisture, or water vapour, condenses to form tiny droplets of water that fall to the ground. The dew point is the elevation in the atmosphere where the temperature is cold enough for water vapour to condense. Water droplets are suspended in the atmosphere as clouds. When these droplets get too heavy, they fall as rain.

A rain gauge is an instrument that measures precipitation. Rain is collected in a clear container and its level is measured. Readings are given in millimetres. Snow is measured in the same manner. To measure the amount of snowfall the snow is first melted, then the resulting water level is measured.

A rain shadow is a physical barrier that stops moisture from crossing a landform. The Rocky Mountains of Western Canada block much of the pacific moisture from reaching the Prairies. As warm moist pacific air is forced over the mountains, it cools. The moisture condenses and falls as rain or snow on the western side of the mountains. As the cooler drier air on the eastern side of the mountain descends, it forms a rain shadow over the Foothills and the Palliser Triangle. The Foothills and the Palliser Triangle of the Prairies are the driest regions in Canada.

Ranching is quite common in the Palliser Triangle west of Swift Current, especially in areas of little rainfall. The climate in a region affects how people farm. There is too little moisture in this area to cultivate grain crops, but just enough to allow very hardy native vegetation to grow. Beef cattle are raised on these hardy grasses found on large open ranges. Cowboys tend to the cattle on horseback or may use all-terrain vehicles.

Cattle remain out on the open range in winter, feeding on the dead grass that has been exposed by warm winter chinooks. Ranchers drop off hay during the coldest months of winter or when the expected winter chinooks fail to melt the snow to provide sufficient nourishment for cattle on the open range. In summer, cattle graze on the short prairie grasses. Cowboys no longer drive the cattle great distances to the nearest packing plant. Huge semi-trailers arrive at the ranch and cattle are loaded onto them. They are then taken to their destination. Some farmers bring their cattle to a feedlot where they are fed a special diet to prepare them for a cattle sale. Later, the same cattle are auctioned off to the highest bidder at an auction mart. These auction stockyards are located throughout the Prairies. Auction buying and selling assures both buyer and seller a fair price.

A ravine is a deep gully cut into the side of a hill. These deep gullies are usually the result of water erosion. Some ravines are caused by poor agricultural practices. Trees tend to grow in ravines because of the extra moisture found there.

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour a volume of air currently holds compared with the amount it is capable of holding at a given temperature. If a kilogram of air can hold 10 grams of water vapour but is only holding 5 grams of water vapour, we say it is half saturated. When air holds about half as much as it is capable of holding, the relative humidity is 50%. When air is totally saturated, the relative humidity is 100%. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air. Relative humidity is measured using an instrument called a wet and dry bulb thermometer.

Reptiles are cold-blooded animals that inhabit all parts of the prairie biome. Their range and numbers in any particular area depend on the availability of a suitable habitat. Prairie reptiles include

A reservoir is a large water storage lagoon used to hold back huge amounts of water. Reservoirs can be formed when rivers are dammed to create a holding pond for irrigation. The largest prairie reservoir is Lake Diefenbaker in the Saskatchewan Plains. Lake Diefenbaker was created by damming the South Saskatchewan River. Smaller reservoirs are created wherever they are required.

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The Saskatchewan Plains is also called Prairie Level Two. This level of the prairie is less flat than the Manitoba Lowland. It is situated between the Manitoba Lowland and the Alberta Plateau. The Manitoba Escarpment forms the eastern boundary of the Saskatchewan Plains. The Missouri Coteau forms the western boundary of the Saskatchewan Plains. This prairie level is a series of rolling hills interspersed with flat sections, such as the Regina Plains. The North and South Saskatchewan rivers have cut deep valleys in the western plains, while the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboine rivers drain the eastern plains. The Saskatchewan Plains have rich deposits of coal, oil, and potash and have a thick layer of fertile soil.

Satellites are space age information and communication devices that orbit the Earth. They are used to relay computer data, telephone, television, and radio signals to every part of the world.

Scavenging is the process of searching for food. Unfortunately, many wild animals find food in human garbage dumps. Becoming dependent on human garbage can be very harmful to wild animals.

Sea level is the level of the oceans. The elevation of landforms is measured by how many metres they are above the level of the oceans. Churchill, a sea port, is at sea level, Winnipeg is 232 metres above sea level and Calgary is 1045 metres above sea level.

Seasonal variations on the Prairies are extreme due to the northern continental climate.

Winters are generally very long and cold on the Prairies. Weather conditions follow a predictable pattern, long sunny cold spells with temperatures dipping to -30°C to -40°C. Prairie blizzards occur each winter. Blizzards are snowstorms with high winds and low temperatures. These conditions produce a high wind chill factor. The high wind chill factors of the prairie winter are dangerous to people and animals.

Spring finally arrives after the long cold prairie winter, usually around April. Within a short time, the prairie landscape becomes green. Trees and plants burst into bloom. Winter snow is an important source of soil moisture. When spring melt water soaks into the soil, it provides moisture for the newly sprouting plants.

Summer on the Prairies comes quickly at the end of June. Bright, clear, warm prairie days are common during the summer months of July and August. Sudden summer rainstorms, accompanied by thunder and lightning can bring heavy thundershowers, high winds, and even hail. These storms build up very suddenly and pass over very quickly. The tornado-like winds of prairie summer storms can damage buildings and grain crops.

Fall arrives by mid-September on the Prairies, when leaves change colour and display brilliant shades of red, brown, and yellow. By the beginning of October, the deciduous trees have lost nearly all their leaves. The average date of first frost occurs in early October.

A section is a piece of agricultural land that is one square mile (2.59 sq. km.), or 640 acres, in area. One section of land is divided into four pieces called quarter sections. Each pioneer homesteader on the Prairies received one quarter section.

Sedimentary rock is formed in layers. Mineral and organic matter is deposited as sediment by water, wind, or glacial ice. Over time and through pressure, these sediments turn into sedimentary rock.

A semi-arid region has minimum or little precipitation. Only hardy, drought-resistant plants can survive in a semi-arid environment. The Palliser Triangle in Alberta and Saskatchewan can be described as a semi-arid region.

Settlement of the Prairies began with the arrival of the original North American Aboriginal People. The Aboriginal people inhabited the Prairies long before European settlers. Aboriginal settlements were located in sheltered areas where there was fresh water and abundant game. Permanent agricultural settlements began with the 1812 arrival of the Selkirk Settlers in the Red River Valley. Soon to follow were thousands of other immigrants, most of whom chose to become farmers. European pioneers arrived in the late 1800s to begin a new life. Each family was given title to a quarter section of land on which to build their homestead. Modern prairie communities contain a mixture of many ethnic and cultural groups that live in

Settlers are people who create settlements, or communities, in a new area. On the Prairies, we also refer to the first non-Aboriginal settlers as pioneers. European settlers arrived on the Prairies in the late 1800s to begin a new life. Each family was given title to a quarter section of land on which to build their farm homestead. Settlers built permanent farming communities on the Prairies. The early European settlers included the French, Anglo-Saxons (English and Scottish), Mennonites (Germans), Ukrainians, Icelanders, and pioneers from the United States.

A shelterbelt or windbreak is a row of trees and shrubs planted around a field or farmyard to protect it from strong winds. In summer, shelterbelts prevent soil erosion. In winter, they hold snow to prevent drifts from building up on roads.

The short prairie grass is found in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains, in a sub-region that is called the Palliser Triangle. Short prairie grasses are the most common native vegetation in the Palliser Triangle. Precipitation in this region averages less than 300 mm annually. Short prairie grasses produce light brown soil. Although quite fertile, light brown soil is not as fertile as the darker prairie soils.

Shrubs are short bushes that grow in coulees, along creek beds, and around aspen groves. Shrubs vary from less than a metre to several metres in height. In the past, prairie grass fires prevented shrubs from getting started on open prairies. Nevertheless, some very hardy and drought-resistant shrubs have adapted to poor growing conditions. Farmers often plant shelterbelts around their farms as part of a soil conservation program. This practice has introduced many new types of shrubs to the Prairies.

Silage is cattle feed made from alfalfa or clover. Cut alfalfa and clover are chopped into small pieces and stored in large bins called silos. Silage is used for winter cattle fodder.

Silos are large bins in which silage (animal fodder) is stored for the winter. Silo bins are common sights on dairy farms.

Sleet is rain that freezes as it hits the cold ground.

Sloughs or potholes are depressions that were created following the melting of the last continental glacier. Sloughs fill with spring run-off water that creates breeding habitat for millions of North American waterfowl. Prairie sloughs tend to evaporate in late summer, leaving a hard mud crust and a salt deposit on their surface.

Snow fences are seasonal fences erected in open fields to trap snow. They prevent snowdrifts from blocking roads, while at the same time holding moisture for next spring's seeding. As the snow melts, water soaks into the soil and builds up the ground moisture that plants need in spring.

Snow is a form of precipitation. Snow forms when water vapour condenses, freezes, and crystallizes. These crystals fall to earth as snowflakes.

Sod shacks are temporary houses with walls constructed of layers of prairie sod. Pioneers often built sod shacks in the first year of their arrival on the Prairies. Sod shacks were easy to construct because there was abundant building material at hand. They were warm and dry and provided protection against the harsh prairie winter. These structures did not last long and had to be replaced in a few years with more permanent buildings. The pioneer family built their next home with more durable materials, such as milled lumber, bricks, or stone.

Sodium sulphate is a mineral used as a pulping agent and as a nutritional supplement in animal food. Sodium sulphate is extracted through a natural evaporation process. When the water evaporates, the sodium sulphate crystallizes and settles at the bottom of a shallow lake. The minerals are then dredged and hauled away. The sodium sulphate mining operation near Chaplin, Saskatchewan is an important producer of this mineral on the Prairies.

Soil is the surface layer of the Earth where most plants grow. Soil is made up of fine rock material and humus. Humus is the organic remains of decayed vegetation. Humus-rich topsoil on the Prairies is created over time, when layers of decaying grasses are built up. It takes about five hundred years to build 3 - 4 cm of topsoil. Soil thickness may range from a few centimetres to several metres thick. Soil is one of the most valuable natural resources on the Prairies.

The existing prairie soils were formed from glacial material left behind when the continental glacier of the last ice age melted. Weather and climate affect the type of plants that can grow in an ecosystem. In turn, the type of plants determine the type of soils produced.

Prairie soils are identified and classified by their colour and texture. Soil is formed in layers, called horizons. Each horizon differs in thickness, composition, colour, and texture.

Soil conservation is a sustainable development practice that maintains and protects valuable prairie agricultural land. Special cultivation techniques have been developed to minimize and reduce soil damage and erosion. On the Prairie, open pit coal mines are being restored to their natural state, and strict building and construction laws have been passed to prevent the destruction of valuable farmland and soil.

Soil erosion takes place when natural forces, such as wind and water, remove valuable agricultural soil. Uncontrolled wind and water may damage agricultural farmland permanently when the topsoil layer is removed. Soil can also be destroyed through improper agricultural practices, urban city expansion, open pit mining operations, and highway construction.

Soil types vary throughout the prairie biome depending on weather, precipitation, and native vegetation. Prairie soil types include black, brown, light brown, and dark grey wooded soils.

Black prairie soils are associated with the original tall prairie grasses of the Manitoba Lowland. They are the most fertile of prairie soils. These soils are formed in regions where the annual precipitation is between 400 and 600 mm. The Red River and Assiniboine valleys are known for their tall prairie grasses as well as for their rich black soils.

Brown prairie soils are associated with the original mixed prairie grasses of the Saskatchewan Plains. They are usually more fertile than the light soils of the Alberta Plateau but not as fertile as the dark brown and black soils of the Manitoba Lowland. Brown prairie soils are formed in regions where there is an average annual precipitation between 300 and 400 mm.

Light brown prairie soils are found in the semi-arid regions of the short grass prairie of the Saskatchewan Plains and the Alberta Plateau. The entire region of the short prairie grasses is called the Palliser Triangle. Annual precipitation averages less than 300 mm. Light brown soils are fertile but not quite as rich as the darker prairie soils. Most crops grown in the Palliser Triangle require irrigation.

Dark grey wooded soils are found in the Parkland sub-region in the northern fringe of the Prairies. These soils are formed where there is a mix of grass and woodlands. The annual precipitation in areas containing dark grey wooded soils varies greatly.

Specialized farming is an agricultural method that concentrates on one type of farming. Farmers may specialize in beef, dairy, grain, pork, poultry, vegetable, or any other type of agricultural production.

Specialty crops grown on the Prairies are those other than grains. In recent years, prairie farmers have been encouraged to grow a variety of crops, including canary seed, sorghum, buckwheat, mustard, lentils, oil seed, and spices.

Spillways are ancient river channels that carried away the melt water from the retreating continental glacier. When the glacier melted, the enormous amount of glacial melt water formed huge rivers. Eventually the water drained and only small rivers now remain in these giant river valleys. Examples of glacial spillways are the Pembina, Assiniboine, and Qu'Appelle river valleys.

Spirit Sands is a desert-like ecosystem within Spruce Woods Provincial Park in the Manitoba Lowland.

Spruce Woods Provincial Park is located in the Manitoba Lowland halfway between Portage la Prairie and Brandon. This park preserves the sand hills that were formed when melt water poured into Lake Agassiz. The delta of this glacial spillway accumulated gravel, sand, and clay silt. Spruce Woods Provincial Park supports the habitat of the northern prairie skink (Manitoba's only lizard), the western hog nose snake, and two species of cacti. All are unique to Manitoba. The park contains a desert-like area known as Spirit Sands. The sand hills in Spirit Sands are similar in origin and features to the great sand hills on the Saskatchewan Plains.

Striations are the deep scratches in bedrock left by the advancing continental glacier of the last ice age. Rocks and boulders frozen to the bottom of the ice acted like giant sandpaper.

Strip farming is an agricultural practice that allows part of the land to remain fallow (unplanted) to conserve moisture for next year's crop. While one strip of land is left fallow, the next strip of that field is seeded and cultivated. The fallow strips of land collect and store the present year's precipitation. The next year, those fallow strips will be planted and the cultivated strips will be fallow.

Supply depots are located in important agricultural communities. Farmers can purchase fuels, seeds, fertilizers, and other chemicals at supply depots.

Sustainable development is an approach to daily decisions that considers consequences to the environment, the economy, and human health and well-being. Sustainable development balances the needs of today, without sacrificing the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

A swather is a large grain-cutting machine. Some swathers are self-propelled, while tractors pull others. A swather cuts the grain and then lays it into long narrow "swaths." The swathed grain will dry at the same rate so that a combine can thresh the entire field at the same time.

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The tall grass prairie extends from the American border along the Red River Valley into the Interlake region of the Manitoba Lowland (Prairie Level One). Tall grasses grow where there is 500 mm or more of precipitation annually. They can grow up to 2 m high. Tall prairie grasses have produced black soils that are among the most fertile in the world. There is very little tall grass prairie left because of agricultural practices.

Temperature is measured in degrees of warmth. Air temperature is determined by the amount of radiant energy the atmosphere has absorbed. Day temperatures are usually higher than night temperatures. Temperature varies with altitude. As the altitude increases, air temperature decreases. Distance from the equator determines the average seasonal temperature for a region. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.

Thermal energy is power created from burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil. When fossil fuels burn, they produce thermal-electric energy and carbon dioxide gas. An increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere adds to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

A thermometer measures temperature. Temperature is measured in a unit of heat called a degree. There are several thermometer scales. In Canada, we use the Celsius scale. On this scale, water freezes at 0°C and water boils at 100°C.

A threatened species is a plant or animal that is native to an ecosystem but that is likely to become endangered or is at risk because of low or declining numbers.

Threshing machines are farm machines that were used in the middle of the 19th century to separate grain kernels from their stocks. Steam or gasoline tractors were used to power threshing machines. Grain stooks were manually pitched onto a conveyer belt that carried them into the threshing machine.

Thunder Bay is a port city located at the western end of Lake Superior. Large grain terminals in Thunder Bay store prairie grain. Prairie grain is shipped from Thunder Bay by boat through the St. Lawrence Seaway to customers in all parts of the world.

Thunderstorms are heavy rain showers accompanied by strong winds, thunder, and lightning. Thunderstorms can occur when strong air masses collide. Warm air is forced upward and produces cumulonimbus clouds. Water vapour condenses producing droplets of rain. In some instances, thunderstorms produce hailstones and tornadoes.

Time zones are the 24 geographic sections into which the Earth has been divided for the purpose of maintaining a standard time system. A Canadian, Sir Sanford Fleming, developed the concept of standard time.

Tipis were the typical dwellings of the North American Aboriginal People of the Plains, as well as those living in the Canadian Shield region. Tipis are made by arranging long poles into a circular frame. Bison skin or birch bark is spread over the framework. A hole is left at the top for smoke from the fire to escape. Tipis provide a strong shelter against the extreme prairie weather. Tipis were the property of the Aboriginal women and were an ideal dwelling for the Aboriginal people who followed the migrating buffalo herds across the plains.

Topography is the physical appearance of a landscape. The prairie landscape has many interesting topographical features. Prairie topography includes rivers, lakes, plains, plateaux, escarpments, hills, and valleys.

Tornadoes appear as violent funnel-shaped windstorms in the lower atmosphere. They are formed by the upward-spiralling, high-speed winds caused by severe thunderstorms. Tornadoes usually appear from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud. Their width ranges from ten to hundreds of metres. They can last from a few minutes to several hours. In Canada, tornadoes occur mainly on the Prairies and in southern Ontario.

The Trans-Canada Highways are Canada's main roadways. They span Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and cross every province. The Trans-Canada Highway splits into two sections at Portage La Prairie, Manitoba. The original Trans-Canada Highway #1 follows the southern route through the Prairies. The Yellowhead Highway #16 is the northern route through the Prairies.

The Trans-Canada Pipeline and its numerous branch lines deliver oil and natural gas from the Prairies to all parts of Canada and the United States. Natural gas is the main heating fuel for prairie homes and buildings.

A transition zone is the area where two regions meet. In the eastern transition zone, the Prairies meet the Canadian Shield. The eastern transition zone is called the Pioneer Fringe. In the western transition zone, the Prairies meet the Rocky Mountains. The western transition zone is called the Alberta Foothills. The Cypress Hills form a vegetation transition zone. They are located on the Alberta/Saskatchewan border. In this unique sub-region, lodge pole pines of the Rockies meet the drought-resistant desert vegetation of the south and the grasses of the prairies.

Transpiration is the process whereby moisture is transferred from a plant to the air through the leaves of the plant.

Transportation methods that move people and goods across the Prairies include airways, hydropower lines, information and communication networks, pipelines, railway lines, roadways, and waterways.

Airways have greatly increased the efficiency with which people and goods can be transported across the Prairies. Aeroplanes do not require roads. They can fly directly into any community that has landing facilities. Landing facilities include runways, landing strips, or bodies of water like lakes or rivers.

Hydropower lines transport electric power to all parts of the Prairies. Hydropower lines are a convenient way to transport energy over great distances at low cost.

Information and communication networks have revolutionized the way people communicate with each other. Satellites orbiting the Earth, cables, fibre optics, cellular and microwave towers, and wireless devices transport electronic signals. These state of the art technologies connect prairie communities with the world. Telephone, radio, Internet, and television services all depend on information and communication technology networks.

Pipelines transport oil or petroleum products from the Prairies across the entire country. This all-weather, all-season, shipping mode does not depend on traditional transportation systems. Pipelines criss-cross the Prairies, providing oil and natural gas to all large prairie communities.

Railway lines constructed by the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s linked the Prairies to the rest of Canada. Trains brought immigrants to the West, while prairie grain was shipped to the East. In a few years, railway tracks criss-crossed the country. Trains, which were once the lifeblood of the Prairies, are still hauling prairie grain. However, today, only selected lines are still in use.

Roadways are the most common way to transport people and goods across the Prairies. Trucks and passenger vehicles depend on highways and fossil fuels to move goods from place to place.

Waterways once provided the Prairies with its only transportation system. A network of lakes and rivers formed natural highways used by Aboriginal people, fur traders, and explorers to travel across the Prairies. Barges still ferry goods on large rivers and lakes in Canada's northland region. The most important waterway in Canada is the St. Lawrence Seaway. Prairie wheat is shipped from Thunder Bay to Europe through the seaway.

Trees grow in prairie habitats where there is a greater concentration of moisture, such as along riverbanks, and in ravines and coulees. The size and type of trees depend upon how much moisture is available. Pines, spruces, and other evergreens grow in places of dry, sandy soil, while deciduous trees such as aspen and oak prefer moist places.

Turbines are large mechanical generators used to produce electricity. Power for turbines can come from fast flowing water or from thermal energy. In some small remote communities, electrical generators are driven by diesel engines.

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Ukrainian homesteads were constructed by Ukrainian settlers. Like other pioneers, Ukrainians brought their cultural traditions with them to the Prairies. These traditions were reflected in the manner in which they built their homesteads and churches. Their houses were constructed of logs that were plastered with clay and then whitewashed. Thatched roofs were frequently woven from wheat straw. These were rainproof and provided insulation against the cold prairie winters. Ukrainian Orthodox churches were built with traditional onion-shaped steeples. Examples of Ukrainian homesteads are found at the Ukrainian Cultural Village just east of Edmonton, Alberta.

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Vintage implements are old antique farm machines and equipment that is no longer in use. Many of these vintage implements are displayed in historical reconstructions and museums.

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Warm fronts occur when a warm low-pressure air mass meets a cold high-pressure air mass forming a ridge of clouds. A long rain spell follows. Warm air masses rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

The water cycle is the way water is recycled on Earth. Water evaporates from oceans and surface water on land. It condenses in clouds and falls to the ground as rain or snow. Some snow can be trapped for thousands of years in glaciers. When rain falls and snow or glaciers melt, the water returns to the oceans, lakes, or to groundwater reservoirs. The world's water supply is constantly being recycled through this great "water machine" called the water cycle.

Oceans cover most of the Earth's surface. The oceans contains 97% of all water in the form of salt water. Only 3% of the world's water is fresh water. Water in the atmosphere and surface water in lakes and rivers hold only 1% of all the fresh water on earth. Two percent (2%) of the entire freshwater supply is tied up in the glacial ice of Antarctica, Greenland, and in mountain glaciers. Most of the world's fresh water is found in underground reservoirs.

Weather is the atmospheric condition over a small area at a given moment of time. Weather is what you experience when you go out of doors. Weather can be described by

Weather balloons carry electronic measuring devices into the atmosphere high above the Earth. They broadcast back vital information about temperature, humidity, and wind speed and direction, to determine the weather conditions in the upper atmosphere.

Weather radar is capable of tracking cloud cover. It records precipitation, cloud height, and cloud density. Radar helps meteorologists determine the extent and probability of precipitation. Doppler radar is able to interpret clouds as three-dimensional images.

Weather satellites orbit the Earth, taking pictures of cloud formations from a distance of several hundred kilometres. Changes in cloud patterns help meteorologists predict changes in weather.

West coast grain terminals in Vancouver and Prince George, British Columbia serve as port facilities to ship prairie grain to Asian markets.

Wetlands are described as habitats that have permanently standing surface water. The surface water of wetlands varies in depth, from a few centimetres to more than a metre. A whole community of plants and animals depends on this habitat for their survival. The Prairies are noted for their many sloughs and marshes. These prairie wetland habitats provide breeding grounds for millions of North American aquatic birds.

Wetland plants grow in very moist or shallow water habitats. There are many growing zones for wetland plants on the Prairies, ranging from moist ground to open water. Sloughs or potholes scattered throughout the prairie provide the wetland habitat for these plants.

The wheat belt is a crescent-shaped zone that cuts across the three Prairie Provinces. This is the most favourable wheat-growing region in Canada.

Wheat is King is an expression that comes from a time when the most important prairie crop was wheat. Even today, Saskatchewan's number one agricultural product remains wheat. Because of the importance of bread in our daily diet, wheat is often referred to as the king of all crops. The slogan "Wheat is King", applies to the Prairies because golden waves of wheat stretch in all directions as far the eye can see. Wheat is the main ingredient of bread, cereals, pastries, and pastas. It is also Canada's number one food export. Grain from the fall prairie harvest is stored in bins or grain elevators until it is sold and shipped through grain terminals in Churchill, Thunder Bay, or the West Coast.

Wind is moving air. When air is heated, it expands. Warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to takes its place. This circulation of air is called a convection current. Air tends to move from an area of high-pressure to an area of low-pressure. We call this air exchange wind. Two measurements are required when measuring wind; speed in kilometres per hour and direction. An anemometer measures wind speed. A weather vane measures wind direction.

Windbreaks are rows of trees, bushes, and shrubs that provide a shelterbelt. Windbreaks along roads and open spaces protect fields from wind erosion. Soil loss through wind erosion is a serious problem on the Prairies. Windbreaks also hold the snow in winter, and provide a physical barrier against strong wind in early spring. The accumulation of snow is important for building up soil moisture. When snow melts, the soil absorbs the run off water making it available to spring vegetation.

Wind-driven water pumps are used in the drier regions of the Prairies. They provide drinking water for cattle on the open range. Prairie farmers also frequently rely on large excavations called dugouts to catch the spring run-off for their animals.

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The Yellowhead Highway is an offshoot of the Trans-Canada Highway. It starts in Winnipeg at Portage and Main, and turns northward just west of Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. It passes through Saskatoon, Saskatchewan and Edmonton, Alberta on its way into the Rocky Mountains and through British Columbia where it ends at Prince Rupert.

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Zero tillage is a cultivation method that eliminates extensive ploughing. Grain stubble is left on the field to hold the soil in place and to reduce evaporation. This practice prevents soil erosion and conserves moisture. The following spring, the crop is seeded without first ploughing the field.

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